Anxiety Explained: What Happens in the Body and What Can Influence It

Posted on by Stephen Brumwell

Article Snapshot

  • Anxiety is a normal response to a real or possible threat.
  • The response can affect thoughts, heart rate, breathing, muscle tension, digestion, sleep and concentration.
  • Anxiety becomes more concerning when it persists, feels out of proportion or interferes with work, relationships, sleep or ordinary activities.
  • There is rarely one universal cause. Biology, learning, stress, health, hormones, sleep, substances and life circumstances can interact.
  • Caffeine, alcohol, inconsistent sleep and inadequate recovery can amplify symptoms in some people.
  • Regular meals, appropriate movement, slower breathing, sleep support and social connection may help lower the overall load, but they do not replace mental-health care when it is needed.
  • Psychological therapy and medication are evidence-based options. Treatment should be matched to the person, the type of anxiety and its severity

Anxiety is a hard thing. It’s often very misunderstood, and it affects us both mentally and physically.

We have racing thoughts, all consuming worry, and often a continued sense that something is wrong. At this same time, our heart races up, our chest tightens, stomach turns, and our sleep can often be impacted too.

Anxiety involves real changes in the body, across our nervous system, hormones, breathing, digestion and more.

In this article, we’ll explain how anxiety is part of the body’s normal protection system. We’ll unpack what happens underneath anxiety, what influences it, and where chronic nervous system activation causes difficulty switching off or going out our day to day lives.

What Is Anxiety?

Anxiety is the body’s automatic response to a real or anticipated threat, and in the right context, it’s useful!

It sharpens our attention, increases energy and prepares us for the possible threat.

But… There’s a difference between occasional anxiety, and an anxiety disorder (or condition).

Normal anxiety usually has an identifiable trigger and settles when the situation passes. An anxiety condition is more likely when the fear or worry is persistent, difficult to control, out of proportion to the situation or strong enough to interfere with daily life (Healthdirect Australia, 2024).

Anxiety conditions, on the other hand, take different forms. They range from generalised anxiety disorder (GAD), panic disorder, social anxiety, specific phobias and agoraphobia. Obsessive-compulsive disorder and post-traumatic stress disorder are now classified separately in diagnostic systems, although anxiety can be a major symptom too.

In this day and age, Anxiety is fairly common too. The Australian Institute of Health and Welfare reported that approximately 17% of Australians aged 16–85 experienced an anxiety disorder during a recent 12-month period (AIHW, 2025).

We must ask though, why is it common? Because chronic anxiety affects our sleep, appetite, digestion, concentration, and bleeds into our relationships, work and our ability to function day-to-day.

What Happens in the Body During Anxiety?

I always like to describe anxiety as an alarm system, or an alert that something big or possibly scary is coming (and it’s normal).

Your brain continuously assesses the environment, your memories and sensations from inside the body. When it detects possible danger, it can activate systems designed to help you respond.

The sympathetic nervous system

The sympathetic branch of the autonomic nervous system prepares the body for action. Adrenaline and noradrenaline help increase alertness, heart rate and blood flow to working muscles.

We experience a range of common and probably familiar symptoms including:

  • a racing or pounding heart
  • quicker or shallower breathing
  • sweating or feeling hot
  • trembling
  • tense shoulders, jaw or abdomen
  • dry mouth
  • nausea, urgency or “butterflies”
  • dizziness or tingling
  • difficulty sitting still.

These sensations can feel frightening, but they are often the body attempting to protect you (as more of a primal, natural response).

The stress-hormone system

The hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, usually shortened to the HPA axis, helps coordinate the longer stress response. It involves signaling between the brain and adrenal glands, including the release of cortisol.

Cortisol is not simply a “bad stress hormone”. It helps mobilise energy, regulate inflammation and support adaptation. Problems are more likely when stress is prolonged, recovery is inadequate or the alarm system keeps activating when no immediate action is required. Anxiety biology involves several interacting systems rather than a single chemical imbalance (Szuhany & Simon, 2022).

The anxiety feedback loop

Once the sympathetic nervous system and stress-hormone response are active, our attention becomes more sensitive to possible danger. This is useful if we need to respond to a genuine threat, but less helpful when the threat is an exam, a big speech or something uncertain that we cannot immediately resolve.

It can create a feedback loop:

  1. We notice the impending threat and begin anticipating what could go wrong.
  2. The alarm response increases, making the threat and related body sensations feel more important.
  3. Our attention keeps returning to the threat, while positive or reassuring information becomes harder to absorb.
  4. The continued focus reinforces the sense that danger is present, and anxiety escalates.

You might find when these feedback loop happens over and over, the anxiety feels bigger. Sometimes, we feel it in our gut, or the feelings can often feel paralysing.

This is because although cortisol plays a large part of this response, our interpretation, body sensations, breathing and our relationship with anxiety also need to be considered.

What happens when the stress response stays active?

A short stress response is adaptive. It helps us mobilise energy and respond to a challenge, this is the type of anxiety we want.

The downside appears when the alarm is activated repeatedly, the perceived threat does not resolve or there is not enough time for recovery.

The chronic work stress, worry, or copious amounts of cortisol spiking caffeine. These are all examples of things that keep us in the anxiety loop.

Over time, this can contribute to lighter or disrupted sleep, muscle tension, digestive changes, irritability, fatigue and difficulty concentrating. Those effects can then make us feel less resilient and more sensitive to the next stressor, creating another loop between anxiety and inadequate recovery.

The parasympathetic nervous system helps bring the body back towards rest, digestion and recovery. This system is the opposite of our sympathetic nervous system. We need more activation of the parasympathetic to pull us out of the anxiety loop, and there are many neurotransmitters that play a role with this switch too (such as GABA, which is essentially lowers Glutamate, which lowers cortisol).

I won’t delve too much into the nitty-gritty of neurotransmitters here. For a deeper explanation or understanding, see Substance Abuse and Neurotransmitters.

The Physical Feeling of Anxiety

The stress response temporarily changes priorities across the body.

Digestion may slow or become more active. Breathing patterns can change blood carbon-dioxide levels, contributing to light-headedness or tingling.

We can get tense muscles, and our sleep can often be lighter (because our body is literally on alert).

We can sometimes have a rabbit increase in appetite, or it can disappear all together, the physical symptoms can really range from person-to-person.

A lot of examples include:

  • chest tightness or palpitations
  • reflux, nausea, bloating, diarrhoea or constipation
  • headaches or jaw tension
  • fatigue combined with difficulty resting
  • poor concentration or brain fog
  • insomnia or unrefreshing sleep
  • feeling detached, unreal or overwhelmed

Things That Make Anxiety Worse

Anxiety is often the result of several factors adding together. Yes it’s the original alarm system feedback loop, it begins with this.

But then we have a range of other lifestyle, dietary and biochemical factors that make anxiety worse.

Again, these can differ from person-to-person, just like the physical symptoms do.

Sleep and circadian rhythm

Anxiety can make it difficult to fall asleep, and keeps us out of that deep, restorative sleep we need.

In return, this sleep deprivation impairs of brain’s emotional regulation, resulting in even worse anxiety symptoms. The relationship with anxiety and sleep literally runs both directions like a viscous cycle (Royant-Parola, 2026).

A consistent wake time, morning light, a darker evening environment and enough opportunity for sleep can be useful foundations. Read more in Sleep Hygiene and Morning Sun and Circadian Rhythm.

Caffeine, alcohol and other substances

Caffeine increases alertness, but it can also increase shakiness, heart rate and anxious feelings. A meta-analysis found that caffeine increased anxiety in healthy participants, with a larger effect at higher doses (Liu et al., 2024).

Sensitivity varies, and yes, coffee is good for you, but we always need to look at dose, timing and your reoccurring symptoms and anxiety level.

Coffee has a wealth of benefits, but if your intake is incredibly high, it’s likely doing more harm than good for your quality of life.

Alcohol also may feel calming in the short term but can disrupt sleep and contribute to rebound anxiety as its effects wear off. Cannabis, stimulants, nicotine, some medications and withdrawal from alcohol or sedatives can also influence symptoms.

Never stop prescribed medication suddenly without professional guidance.

Food intake and nutritional status

Our food intake, particularly the frequency and how balanced our meals are, can have negative impact on our anxiety.

Examples include skipping breakfast, or consuming too much highly processed foods, that are practically void of nutrients and spike your blood sugar.

But no, it does not mean every anxious person has blood sugar issues, although, it can be part of the picture.

Nutrients also, such as iron, vitamin B12, folate, vitamin D, magnesium and zinc are important in maintaining normal nervous system function. Deficiency can exacerbate anxiety symptoms, and contribute to fatigue, restlessness, poor concentration or reduced resilience to stress.

Magnesium is often promoted as an anxiety solution. Particularly because it supports nervous system signaling, and promotes release of GABA, a neurotransmitter that activates our parasympathetic nervous system. Read more on the broader evidence and roles of Magnesium here: Magnesium: Why This Mineral Matters.

Gut symptoms and the gut-brain axis

The gut and brain communicate through neural, hormonal, immune and metabolic pathways. Stress can change digestion, while ongoing gastrointestinal symptoms can increase vigilance and distress.

Similar to sleep, this is another directional relationship where anxiety and stress impacts our gut, and then the state of our gut feeds back and worsen anxiety symptoms (Verma et al., 2024).

Some gut symptoms include altered bowel habits, reflux, and even persistent pain. Of course, ongoing symptoms always require assessment to rule out other diseases, such as coeliac disease, dairy intolerances or other serious health conditions.

Please note: Severe food restriction or narrowed diet to treat anxiety is not recommended, always seek guidance by a trained health professional, such as a Nutritionist or Naturopath.

Hormonal patterns

Some people notice predictable changes around the menstrual cycle, pregnancy, postpartum period or perimenopause. A systematic review found that symptoms can fluctuate across the menstrual cycle in several anxiety-related conditions (Green & Graham, 2022).

Fluctuations in oestrogen and progesterone can influence brain chemicals involved in mood and calming, including serotonin and GABA. For some people, the sharper hormonal shifts in the days before a period can temporarily increase anxiety, irritability, stress sensitivity and sleep disruption.

Hormone disruption can be a big deal. If we are experiencing Increased anxiety, stress resilience and sleep disruption, that is a trifecta of contributors that worsen the experience.

It’s often recommend to track cycle timing across 2-3 cycles to understand potential hormonal impacts. If you want to understand your hormones more, a 24-hour urinary test is most recommended to really understand what is happening undereath. A snapshot blood test can often be unreliable.

For more context on changing hormones, sleep and mood, see Unpacking Perimenopause.

Physical health and medications

Thyroid conditions, heart-rhythm problems, anaemia, respiratory illness, chronic pain and other health conditions, these can all amplify or produce anxiety-like symptoms. Some medicines or supplements may also contribute.

This does not mean your condition is the main driver of your anxiety, it’s likely a combination of contributors, so don’t worry.

This is why your GP or relevant health professional should always be considering the wider, more holistic picture. This is also particularly relevant when symptoms are new, severe, or rapidly changing.

Movement and recovery

Physical activity can support mood, sleep and stress regulation. A large overview of systematic reviews found that physical-activity interventions can improve symptoms of anxiety and psychological distress across adult populations (Singh et al., 2023).

This is actually a big win for physical activity, but, more is not always better here!

Someone who is exhausted, under-fuelled or highly sensitised to a racing heart may respond better to walking, resistance training, yoga or shorter sessions than another intense workout.

If you are on a 7 day workout bender trying to lose the weight, while severely undereating and juggling life in between, this is likely contributing to your anxiety picture.

Workload, uncertainty and digital input

Chronic stress = chronic cortisol activation = chronic fuel for your anxiety.

Months of deadlines, financial pressure, conflict, distressing news and constant notifications can repeatedly activate many of the same stress systems used during a physical threat.

Notice what happens after late-night work, doomscrolling, and also throwing the days stressors into the mix. You may also be repeatly checking symptoms or consuming large chunks of health content to find the cure to your anxiety.

The answer isn’t in the health content, it’s actually in the workload and stress your body is taking on.

I’m not saying to avoid all online information, but decide when it’s useful, and when it isn’t.

Humans were not evolved to know it all, so it’s okay to have uncertainty.

Relationships and emotional safety

Supportive relationships can buffer physiological stress. Being able to speak honestly, share practical load and feel safe with another person can change how manageable a situation feels.

On the other hand, anxiety can increase when emotions are suppressed, or the relationships in your home or work life just don’t feel safe or supportive.

Of course, we must always have a food first approach, but there is a point where this cannot solve the environmental or emotional driver.

If your home or work life puts you in serious danger, Call 000 or Lifeline 24-hour crisis support on 13 11 14

Tips to Reduce the Anxiety Load

That was all probably a lot to unpack if you read it all. The most important takeaway is that while everything appears connected, tying to fix it all will create more pressure.

Below are more pattern-like tracking tips to gradually resolve some of the anxiety you may be facing.

Track When Anxiety Happens

For one or two weeks, note:

  • when anxiety appears
  • what you were doing or thinking beforehand
  • your sleep quality that previous night
  • caffeine, alcohol and medication timing
  • were you eaitng well or was there long gaps?
  • menstrual-cycle (if relevant)
  • digestive symptoms (and any food intake around it)
  • stressful events (social, work, home)
  • did anything make your anxiety better?

This list isn’t exhaustive, but some good areas to keep in the back of your mind.

Reduce one avoidable load

Did you find a pattern or notice something you can realistically change?

Great, pick one and stick to it for the next 2 weeks.

This could be dropping one coffee, eating more consistently, or having a hard line when it comes to work finish time to support healthy work life balance.

The key is to find something simple and make it easily actionable. I recommend reading Atomic Habits by James Clear if you want good tactical ways to incorporate habit simplicity.

Work with your body, not against it

Stress is actually inevitable, but the key is how we work with it.

Slower, comfortable breathing may help reduce physiological arousal. A meta-analysis found respiratory interventions can reduce anxiety, although the methods and quality of studies vary (Leyro et al., 2021).

Try a gentle exhale-focused pattern without forcing a very deep breath. If breathwork makes you more uncomfortable, stop and use another grounding strategy, such as feeling your feet on the floor, naming objects in the room or walking slowly.

The key here is activating that parasympathetic nervous system to pull us out of that fight-or-flight, high anxiety state.

Box breathing is also a good tactic, which involves 4 slow breaths in, hold for 4, 4 slow breaths out, hold for 4. Repeat this 6-8 times a session, 2 times a day (or when needed).

Cover the foundations (as best as you can)

Sleep, regular meals, daylight, appropriate movement, time outdoors and meaningful contact with other people.

I won’t unpack too much here, but these are your foundations for health and really essential to supporting healthy quality of life.

Again, maybe you can pick one, but really, they’re kind of non-negotiable if you want to reduce your anxiety long-term.

Get the right kind of help

Psychological therapies, including cognitive behavioural therapy and graded exposure, are established treatments for anxiety. Medication may also be appropriate for some people.

Treatment should be discussed with a GP or mental-health professional and matched to your symptoms, preferences and health history if you decide to go down the medication route (Healthdirect Australia, 2024; Szuhany & Simon, 2022).

Nutrition and naturopathic care can sit alongside mental-health treatment as well.

If you are struggling to tick off the foundations, or just stuck, this type of care can really help. Naturopathic care involves supporting your diet, sleep, stimulant use, check deficiencies and other health factors.

When to Seek Professional Help

Speak with a GP or mental-health professional when anxiety:

  • is persistent or getting worse
  • causes panic attacks
  • interferes with sleep, work, study or relationships
  • leads you to avoid important activities
  • causes increasing reliance on alcohol, sedatives or other substances
  • comes with significant depression, hopelessness or difficulty coping
  • begins suddenly or with concerning physical symptoms
  • you have episodes of suicidal thoughts

Call 000 if you or someone else is in immediate danger. If you are feeling overwhelmed or having difficulty staying safe, Lifeline provides 24-hour crisis support on 13 11 14 (Lifeline Australia, n.d.)..

Frequently Asked Questions

What is the difference between stress and anxiety?

Stress is commonly linked to an identifiable demand, such as a deadline, conflict or illness. Anxiety can continue after the immediate stressor has passed or may focus on a possible future threat. They overlap, and ongoing stress can increase anxiety.

Can anxiety cause physical symptoms?

Yes. Anxiety can affect heart rate, breathing, muscles, digestion, sleep, temperature, concentration and balance. New or severe symptoms should still be medically assessed rather than automatically attributed to anxiety.

Can caffeine make anxiety worse?

Yes, particularly at higher doses or in sensitive people. Consider the total amount from coffee, tea, energy drinks, pre-workout products and some medicines. Reduce gradually if intake is high.

Is anxiety caused by a nutrient deficiency?

Usually not by one nutrient alone. Iron, vitamin B12, folate, vitamin D, magnesium and zinc support normal physiology, and deficiency can overlap with anxiety-like symptoms. Assessment should consider food intake, health history and appropriate testing.

Can gut problems cause anxiety?

The gut and brain communicate in both directions. Digestive symptoms may increase distress, and anxiety can change gut motility and sensitivity. This relationship is real but complex; it should not be reduced to one microbe or a universal probiotic.

When does anxiety become a disorder?

Anxiety may meet the threshold for a disorder when it is persistent, difficult to control, out of proportion to the situation and causes distress or interferes with daily functioning. A qualified health professional can assess this properly.

References

Australian Institute of Health and Welfare. (2025, May 20). Prevalence and impact of mental illness. https://www.aihw.gov.au/mental-health/overview/prevalence-and-impact-of-mental-illness

Green, S. A., & Graham, B. M. (2022). Symptom fluctuation over the menstrual cycle in anxiety disorders, PTSD, and OCD: A systematic review. Archives of Women’s Mental Health, 25(1), 71–85. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00737-021-01187-4

Healthdirect Australia. (2024, September). Anxiety. https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/anxiety

Leyro, T. M., Versella, M. V., Yang, M.-J., Brinkman, H. R., Hoyt, D. L., & Lehrer, P. (2021). Respiratory therapy for the treatment of anxiety: Meta-analytic review and regression. Clinical Psychology Review, 84, 101980. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2021.101980

Lifeline Australia. (n.d.). Lifeline crisis support. https://www.lifeline.org.au/get-help/national-services/lifeline-crisis-support

Liu, C., Wang, L., Zhang, C., Hu, Z., Tang, J., Xue, J., & Lu, W. (2024). Caffeine intake and anxiety: A meta-analysis. Frontiers in Psychology, 15, 1270246. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1270246

Royant-Parola, S. (2026). Sleep disturbances in anxiety disorders: State of the art and management. L’Encéphale, 52(3S), S46–S50. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.encep.2026.02.011

Singh, B., Olds, T., Curtis, R., Dumuid, D., Virgara, R., Watson, A., Szeto, K., O’Connor, E., Ferguson, T., Eglitis, E., Miatke, A., Simpson, C. E. M., & Maher, C. (2023). Effectiveness of physical activity interventions for improving depression, anxiety and distress: An overview of systematic reviews. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 57(18), 1203–1209. https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2022-106195

Szuhany, K. L., & Simon, N. M. (2022). Anxiety disorders: A review. JAMA, 328(24), 2431–2445. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2022.22744

Verma, A., Inslicht, S. S., & Bhargava, A. (2024). Gut-brain axis: Role of microbiome, metabolomics, hormones, and stress in mental health disorders. Cells, 13(17), 1436. https://doi.org/10.3390/cells13171436

Addictive Personality: Is It Real, and Can Those Traits Be Channeled for Good?

Posted on by Stephen Brumwell

Article Snapshot

  • “Addictive personality” is not a formal diagnosis. There is no single personality type that causes addiction.
  • Personality can still influence risk. Traits such as impulsivity, sensation seeking, reward sensitivity and all-or-nothing behaviour may make certain rewards harder to moderate for some people.
  • Being intense, ambitious or highly focused is not the same as addiction. Loss of control and continuing despite meaningful harm are much more important warning signs.
  • Some of the energy once directed towards alcohol or another addictive behaviour can sometimes be redirected into exercise, learning, creative work, business or other purposeful goals.
  • The aim is not to simply swap one compulsion for another. Healthy redirection still needs boundaries, self-awareness and the ability to stop.
  • A more useful question than “Do I have an addictive personality?” may be: Which patterns increase my risk, and which parts of my personality can I use constructively?

I’ve heard the phrase “I’ve got an addictive personality” more times than I can count.

I’ve probably used it myself.

Usually, what people mean is something along the lines of: if I get into something, I really get into it. Maybe it’s alcohol, exercise, work, gaming, food, shopping, business ideas or a hobby that somehow goes from casual interest to full-blown obsession in three days.

I can relate to that all-or-nothing mentality.

When I wrote about this years ago on my older blog, Clarity Sober, I looked at the idea that some of the traits associated with addiction can also show up in highly driven, ambitious and entrepreneurial people. I still think there is something useful in that conversation, but I would frame it differently now.

The idea of a single “addictive personality” is much too simple.

There isn’t one personality type that causes addiction, and the term itself isn’t a formal diagnosis. Addiction is influenced by a mix of biology, genetics, environment, mental health, learning, social factors and behaviour. Personality can be part of that picture, but it is only one part (National Institute on Drug Abuse).

So perhaps the better question isn’t “Do I have an addictive personality?”

Maybe it’s “What patterns do I have that make certain behaviours harder to control, and can some of those same traits be used more constructively?”

Is an Addictive Personality Actually Real?

Not really, at least not in the way the phrase is commonly used.

There is no recognised diagnosis called an addictive personality, and researchers haven’t identified one universal set of personality traits shared by everyone who develops an addiction.

That makes sense when you think about how different people with substance-use problems can be.

One person may be highly impulsive and constantly chasing stimulation. Another may be anxious, cautious and using alcohol to switch off. Someone else may be dealing with trauma, chronic pain, loneliness, depression or a social environment where heavy drinking has simply become normal.

They can arrive at a similar problem through very different pathways.

I think through general discussion, using the term “addictive personality” is okay, but jus know, addiction can be far more complicated than that.

Your Personality and Addiction

Saying there is no single addictive personality doesn’t mean personality has nothing to do with addiction.

Certain traits have been studied in relation to substance use and risky behaviour, particularly impulsivity and sensation seeking. Longitudinal research has found that differences in these traits can relate to different patterns of substance use across adolescence and early adulthood (Quinn & Harden, 2013).

Again, that does not mean someone who is impulsive or adventurous will develop an addiction.

It simply means some traits may influence how strongly a person is drawn toward reward, novelty or immediate gratification.

A few patterns people often describe when they talk about having an “addictive personality” include:

  • getting intensely interested in things very quickly
  • struggling with moderation once something feels rewarding
  • chasing novelty, excitement or stimulation
  • making decisions before fully considering the consequences
  • becoming highly focused on goals or activities
  • feeling restless or bored when there isn’t enough stimulation
  • using certain behaviours as a way to escape uncomfortable emotions
  • tending toward an all-or-nothing mindset

None of those automatically equal addiction, but if you’re ticking all of these boxes, the risks of developing an addiction could be higher.

The All-or-Nothing Personality

There are people who casually decide to take up running, and kind of stop there, right?

Then there are people who buy the shoes, download Strava, research heart-rate zones, sign up for a half marathon and somehow own a Garmin by Thursday. All-or-Nothing.

I fit very much into this category, it’s really a double-edged sword. It keeps you accountable and successful, but also makes you teter on the edge of burnout.

You probably if you fall into this category. This same person might throw themselves into the below categories.

  • Extreme fitness
  • over work
  • Entrepreneurial business
  • Music
  • Academic study
  • creative projects
  • Deep nutrition tracking
  • A new hobby
  • Personal development

This intensity though, can sometimes produce genuinely impress results (and often, build great businesses).

The problem is not necessarily that you care deeply about something or become highly motivated.

The more useful question is “Can you do all these, and choose when to stop when you say you will?”

Passion Is Not the Same as Addiction

I think we need to be careful about pathologising everything people enjoy intensely.

Working long hours during an important business launch isn’t automatically a work addiction.

Loving exercise doesn’t mean you’re addicted to exercise.

Gaming regularly doesn’t automatically mean you have a gaming disorder.

Being incredibly enthusiastic about a hobby is often completely normal.

With addiction, one of the important warning signs is that control starts to deteriorate and the behaviour continues despite meaningful harm or consequences.

It’s all about the warning signs, or what I like to call, the Hallmarks of Addiction, more here: Hallmarks of Addiction: Red Flags That a Habit Has Become Hard to Control.

Can Those Same Traits Be Redirected?

This is the part of the original idea that I still find genuinely interesting.

When someone gives up alcohol or another addictive behaviour, they often don’t suddenly become a completely different person.

They don’t suddenly become bored or unmotivated.

They often still have the intensity, but it’s redirected into challenges, novelty, competition, or highly driven achievements.

Of course, this doesn’t mean the recovery challenges, the cravings or the sobriety milestones disappear. This highly driven energy also doesn’t happen immediately.

Recovery can often create a strange gap. We use to spend some much mental energy around drinking, obtaining alcohol, recovering from alcohol or thinking about when the next drink was coming.

We must learn fill the gap, and redirect the energy in a productive way.

This could be finally establishing a health exercise routine, diving into study for personal development or growth, or even leaning into some new creative work.

There is nothing wrong with becoming deeply invested in something positive that isn’t alcohol

The important part is keeping enough awareness that you don’t simply replace one uncontrolled compulsion with another.

Channel It, Don’t Just Swap It

If someone stops drinking but then starts exercising compulsively, spending uncontrollably or working until their relationships and health fall apart, we probably haven’t solved the underlying problem.

We’ve just changed the behaviour, we’ve swapped it but kept the same issue. Healthy redirection still needs it’s own boundaries.

If you still have that intensity, and you’re channeling it into some new tasks, ask yourself:

  • Is this helping me or harming me?
  • Am I choosing this, or do I feel compelled to do it?
  • Can I take a day off without becoming distressed?
  • Is this activity improving my life overall?
  • Are my relationships, sleep and health still intact?
  • Am I avoiding something emotionally by keeping myself constantly busy?

What About Entrepreneurship and Leadership?

My original article leaned heavily into the connection between addictive personality traits, leadership and entrepreneurship.

There are certainly traits that can be useful in entrepreneurship, including achievement motivation, creativity, persistence and a willingness to tolerate uncertainty or risk. Research on entrepreneurial intentions has also examined characteristics such as risk-taking propensity and achievement motivation (Sun et al., 2020).

And yes, there can be some surface-level overlap with traits people informally associate with an “addictive personality.”

I’ve mentioned them probably already, but that’s traits such as being highly driven, competitive, willing to take tasks, or become highly motivated by achievement and reward.

These maybe “addictive personality” traits don’t create successful entrepreneurs though.

A successful entrepreneur with good leadership qualities also requires good judgement, patience, consistency and healthy emotional regulation.

The same intensity that once went into destructive behaviour may potentially become useful when it is paired with self-awareness, structure and control.

Don’t Romanticise Addiction

The final part I want to discuss is the trap of romanticising addiction.

It’s not a superpower, in fact, being able to control the addiction and stop it for good, that’s the superpower.

Addiction can damage health, relationships, careers, finances and families. For some people, it can be life-threatening.

Maybe you are naturally ambitious, maybe your personality is intense, and maybe you are competitive, curious, and highly driven.

Despite your success, do not use addiction as your motivational angle for your success, because if you do, that double-edged sword will come back to bite you.

The Takeaway

You probably don’t have an “addictive personality.”

You have a personality.

Within that are strengths, vulnerabilities, habits, experiences and behavioural patterns that may influence your risk of addiction.

Some of those patterns may need serious attention.

Others may be parts of you that can be redirected rather than eliminated.

For me, that’s a much more useful way to think about the topic than deciding someone is simply born with the personality of an addict.

Recovery and personal growth aren’t always about becoming a completely different person.

Sometimes they’re about learning to point the same engine in a better direction.

If you’re interested in the behavioural side of addiction and recovery, you may also like to read the following articles

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

Is an addictive personality a real diagnosis?

No. “Addictive personality” is not a formal diagnosis, and there is no single personality profile that explains why someone develops an addiction. Addiction is influenced by a combination of biological, psychological, environmental, social and behavioural factors. Personality may contribute to risk, but it is only one part of the picture.

What personality traits are linked with addiction?

Research has commonly looked at traits such as impulsivity and sensation seeking, along with differences in reward seeking and decision-making. These traits may influence risk for some people, but having them does not mean someone will develop an addiction.

Does being obsessive or all-or-nothing mean I have an addiction?

Not necessarily. You can be highly focused, competitive or deeply interested in something without being addicted to it. A more important question is whether you are losing control and continuing despite meaningful harm. I cover this distinction further in Hallmarks of Addiction.

Can addictive tendencies be channelled into positive habits?

Sometimes. People in recovery may find it helpful to direct time, energy and intensity into exercise, study, creative work, business, volunteering or structured goals. The important part is maintaining boundaries so a positive activity does not simply become another uncontrolled compulsion.

Can you replace one addiction with another?

It can happen. Stopping alcohol or another addictive behaviour does not automatically resolve the patterns underneath it. If exercise, work, shopping, gaming or another activity starts becoming difficult to control or causes harm, it is worth looking at the behaviour rather than assuming it is healthy simply because the original addiction has stopped. For more on how reward and urges can operate, see Cravings 101.

References

Creatine: What It Is, How It Is Used and Why Brain Health Research Is Getting Interesting

Posted on by Stephen Brumwell

Creatine has moved a long way from its old reputation as a gym-only supplement.

For years, most people associated it with bodybuilding, strength training and muscle size. This makes sense, because Creatine monohydrate is one of the most researched supplements in sports nutrition, and its strongest evidence is still in exercise performance.

But recently, the conversation around Creatine has widened.

Research has now started to look more closely on Creatine’s role in brain energy, cognitive performance, and neurological health and support.

In this article, we’ll discuss what Creatine is, what it does, it’s current and future benefits, and what dosing creatine looks like now.

What Is Creatine?

Creatine is a compound made naturally in the body from the amino acids arginine, glycine and methionine. It is also found in animal foods such as meat and fish.

Most creatine is stored in skeletal muscle, but it is also found in other tissues, including the brain. Once stored, creatine helps recycle adenosine triphosphate, or ATP. ATP is the body’s immediate energy currency.

Basically, ATP provides quick energy for cells → ATP is used, phosphate group lost and becomes ADP → Creatine helps donate phosphate group back to ADP → ATP is regenerated!

That creatine-phosphocreatine system is especially useful when energy demand rises quickly. In muscle, that might mean sprinting, lifting or repeated high-intensity efforts. In the brain, it may matter when cognitive demand is high or energy availability is under pressure.

This is why creatine sits in an interesting place. It is not just a performance supplement. It is a bioenergetic compound, meaning it is involved in how cells manage and buffer energy.

Why Creatine Is Still Best Known for Exercise

Creatine’s benefits still lie largely in the realm of supporting physical performance.

The Australian Institute of Sport lists creatine monohydrate as a Group A supplement, meaning it has strong evidence for use in specific sporting situations. Its main role is supporting repeated high-intensity efforts, strength and power-based training, and training blocks where performance and adaptation matter.

Exercise types where Creatine tends to be most relevant include:

  • resistance training
  • sprint work
  • repeated high-intensity intervals
  • power-based sports
  • team sports involving repeated bursts of effort
  • training phases where lean mass and strength are priorities

It is less likely to create obvious benefits for low-intensity activity alone. Someone doing gentle walking or occasional yoga may not notice much from creatine. This is because the energy demand is much less.

When we lift heavy weights, sprint, train hard and do explosive workouts, we will notice it more due to a much higher energy demand.

Creatine Monohydrate vs Other Forms

There are many forms of creatine on the market: creatine hydrochloride, buffered creatine, creatine nitrate, creatine ethyl ester and various blended formulas.

I am honestly not opposed to using the other forms, they have their place. Creatine monohydrate is still probably the direction I would go, purely because it’s the form used in most of the research.

The Australian Institute of Sport notes that creatine monohydrate is well absorbed and that there is no clear scientific reason to choose another form over monohydrate for most uses.

The next step is buying Creatine monohydrate that is most pure. In Australia, most commercially available options are suitable and safe. If you want the purest option though, you can look for products that use either Creapure, Purest or OptiCreatine. Some product examples below.

To avoid overcomplicating it, and just zooming into the benefits of Creatine, start with looking for a product that gives you 3-5g of Creatine per scoop.

Creatine and Brain Energy

The brain is energy hungry. Although it represents only a small percentage of body weight, it uses a large amount of the body’s energy at rest.

This is where creatine research becomes more interesting.

Creatine helps buffer cellular energy. In the brain, that may be relevant during periods of increased demand, such as sleep loss, cognitive stress, ageing, injury or disease states where energy metabolism is altered.

FoundMyFitness (n.d.) highlights this shift well: creatine is no longer being discussed only as a sports supplement. It is also being studied for brain bioenergetics, cognition, sleep deprivation and neurodegenerative conditions.

Pausing here for a second though, The evidence does still show to be more stronger and settled for exercise performance vs brain health. This is not saying it isn’t beneficial, but more that the research is more substantial and available.

Brain-related research is promising, but it’s still developing. Candow et al. (2023) note that dose, duration, age, diet, health status and baseline creatine levels all appear to matter.

What Recent Cognitive Research Suggests

Xu et al. (2024) conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis of 16 randomised controlled trials involving 492 adults. They found that creatine monohydrate supplementation may have benefits for some aspects of cognitive function, particularly memory, attention time and processing speed. The authors also noted that larger, more robust trials are needed.

It does not mean creatine makes everyone smarter. It does not mean every healthy, well-rested adult will feel a dramatic mental boost. It suggests there may be specific cognitive domains and specific contexts where creatine is useful.

From what we can see, Creatine appears have the most measurable impact on a stressed or mentally fatigued brain. This means, we see the highest return on brain-states that are sleep deprived, ageing, have lower dietary creatine intake, or have a higher cognitive workload.

The takeaway is, creatine may be more noticeable when the system is under strain. For someone rested and collected, we’ll see less noticeable improvements.

Creatine and Sleep Deprivation

One of the more interesting newer studies looked at creatine during sleep deprivation.

Gordji-Nejad et al. (2024) gave healthy adults a single high dose of creatine monohydrate, 0.35 grams per kilogram of body weight, during 21 hours of sleep deprivation. The researchers found changes in brain energy markers and improvements in cognitive performance and processing speed compared with placebo.

For an 80 kg adult, 0.35 grams per kilogram is 28 grams of creatine in a single dose. That is much higher than a standard daily maintenance dose. It was used in a controlled research setting, not as a casual daily recommendation.

I would probably not try and consume that bolus of creatine either, it could end up resulting in an immediate trip to the bathroom.

What this really means is, don’t hero dose to get the benefits, spread it out across the day. A simple strategy is often 5g three times daily, or 10g twice daily, it depends on your original tolerance.

Creatine, Ageing and Neurodegenerative Research

FoundMyFitness (n.d.) summarised an early Alzheimer’s disease pilot study where 20 adults with early-stage Alzheimer’s disease took 20 grams of creatine monohydrate per day for 8 weeks, split into two 10 gram doses (see, don’t hero dose it!).

From this study, brain creatine stores increased on average, and several cognitive measures improved, this is amazing.

This study suggests even further than before that higher-dose creatine is capable of increasing brain creatine levels, and the link between creatine and brain-energy research needs more attention.

What was once a supplement just for the gym goer, has almost become a daily wellness or longevity essential. This leads us into the next question.

Who Might Be Most Interested in Creatine?

Creatine is still a very useful tool in your toolkit for people who want support for strength, training capacity or energy-demanding activities.

Creatine may also be super useful for the following

  • people doing regular resistance training
  • athletes or active people doing repeated high-intensity work
  • people rebuilding strength after time away from training
  • older adults wanting to support muscle function alongside exercise
  • vegetarians or people with low dietary creatine intake
  • people with ongoing sleep deprivation or sleep deficits (parenting, anyone?)
  • people with high physical or cognitive demands

Please note though, Creatine still works best beside the basics: adequate food, enough protein, progressive training, sleep, hydration and appropriate health care where needed.

Creatine is not a fix all solution, but in fact still a supplemental tool. Foundational health habits should always be covered as well.

Current Dosing Recommendations

For exercise performance and muscle creatine saturation, the standard dosing guidance has not changed dramatically.

Option 1: Loading phase

While less essential to do this now, the thought behind this is saturating muscle stores. This is especially relevant in the strength training or weight lifting area.

The loading approach is around 0.3 grams of creatine monohydrate per kilogram of body weight per day for about 5 days, usually split into 3 to 4 doses with meals.

After loading, a maintenance dose is usually around 3 to 5 grams per day, or about 0.03 grams per kilogram of body weight per day.

Option 2: No loading phase

Many people skip the loading phase and simply take 3 to 5 grams of creatine monohydrate per day.

This can still increase muscle creatine stores over time, but it usually still sufficient for most users.

For general health, training and simplicity, this is often the easiest option. It is cheaper, easier to remember and usually gentler on digestion.

Option 3: Cognitive demand dosing

There is no true exact number for this, so the optimal dose on increasing brain creatine is not clear.

Fabiano and Candow (2025) argue that brain-focused creatine research often uses higher dosing than standard sports nutrition protocols, but the ideal dose is still not clear. The practical approach here would be to split this up twice or three times daily (so 10g or 5g per dose per day).

Of course, if you have any pre-existing kidney or complex health issues, speaking to a health professional first is important before doing this.

Timing: When Should You Take Creatine?

Creatine works by increasing tissue creatine stores over time. It is not like caffeine, where the timing is tightly linked to an immediate stimulant effect.

The Australian Institute of Sport notes that creatine uptake may be supported when taken with meals containing carbohydrate and protein. Taking it after training with a normal post-exercise meal is also a practical habit for many people.

Some good times to fit creatine into your schedule is with breakfast, with lunch, before training, or simply mixed into a smoothie.

If creatine upsets your stomach, try taking it with food, using a smaller dose, or skipping the loading phase.

Common Creatine Myths

Myth 1: Creatine is a steroid

Creatine is not an anabolic steroid. It has a completely different structure and function. It is made naturally in the body and found in food.

Myth 2: Creatine is only for bodybuilders

Creatine is popular in bodybuilding, but its use is broader than that. It may support strength, power, sprint performance, training volume, older-adult muscle function and emerging areas of brain-energy research.

Myth 3: More creatine is always better

Higher doses may be used in specific research settings (such as sleep deprivation or high cognitive load, but for everyday use, 3 to 5 grams per day is still the most practical baseline for most healthy adults.

Myth 4: Creatine causes fat gain

Creatine can increase body weight in some people, often through increased water stored with muscle creatine. That is not the same as fat gain.

Myth 5: Creatine damages kidneys in healthy people

Antonio et al. (2021) note that creatine is generally well tolerated at recommended doses in healthy people. However, people with kidney disease, abnormal kidney markers or complex medical situations should get professional guidance first.

The Takeaway

Creatine monohydrate remains one of the most evidence-backed supplements for strength, power and repeated high-intensity exercise.

What has changed is the conversation around it.

Creatine is now being studied as a broader energy-support compound, particularly for the brain. The newer research into cognition, sleep deprivation, ageing and neurodegenerative conditions is promising, but it is not as settled as the exercise-performance research.

For most healthy adults, the practical starting point is still simple: creatine monohydrate, 3 to 5 grams per day, taken consistently. Loading can be useful when faster muscle saturation is desired, but it is not essential.

The bigger picture still matters. Creatine works best when it sits beside good food, enough protein, regular training, sleep and sensible health care.

If you are unsure whether creatine fits your goals, Stephen can help you look at the full picture: nutrition, training, lifestyle, energy, sleep and whether supplementation is likely to be useful for your situation.

FAQ

What is creatine used for?

Creatine is best known for supporting strength, power, repeated high-intensity exercise and training adaptation. It is also being researched for brain energy, cognition, sleep deprivation and ageing.

What is the best form of creatine?

Creatine monohydrate is the best-supported form and is usually the most practical choice.

How much creatine should I take?

A common daily dose is 3 to 5 grams of creatine monohydrate. A loading phase of around 20 grams per day for about 5 days can saturate muscle stores faster, followed by 3 to 5 grams per day.

Do I need to load creatine?

No. Loading is optional. Taking 3 to 5 grams per day without loading can still increase muscle creatine stores over time.

Can creatine support brain health?

Creatine may support aspects of brain energy metabolism, and research suggests possible benefits for memory, attention time and processing speed in some adults. The evidence is promising but still developing.

Are higher doses needed for brain benefits?

Possibly, but this is not settled. Some brain-focused studies use higher doses than standard sports nutrition protocols, but these are research settings rather than general public dosing advice.

Is creatine safe?

Creatine monohydrate is generally well tolerated in healthy people when used at recommended doses. People with kidney disease, complex medical conditions, pregnancy, breastfeeding or medication concerns should seek professional guidance first.

Does creatine cause weight gain?

It can increase scale weight for some people, often because creatine increases water stored inside muscle. This is not the same as gaining body fat.

References

Australian Institute of Sport. (n.d.). Creatine: How and when do I use it? Australian Sports Commission. https://www.ausport.gov.au/ais/nutrition/supplements/group_a/performance-supplements2/creatine/how-and-when-do-i-use-it

Antonio, J., Candow, D. G., Forbes, S. C., Gualano, B., Jagim, A. R., Kreider, R. B., Rawson, E. S., Smith-Ryan, A. E., VanDusseldorp, T. A., Willoughby, D. S., & Ziegenfuss, T. N. (2021). Common questions and misconceptions about creatine supplementation: What does the scientific evidence really show? Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition, 18, Article 13. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12970-021-00412-w

Candow, D. G., Forbes, S. C., Ostojic, S. M., Prokopidis, K., Stock, M. S., Harmon, K. K., & Faulkner, P. (2023). “Heads up” for creatine supplementation and its potential applications for brain health and function. Sports Medicine, 53(Suppl. 1), 49-65. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-023-01870-9

Fabiano, N., & Candow, D. (2025). Creatine supplementation: More is likely better for brain bioenergetics, health and function. Journal of Psychiatry and Brain Science, 10(4), Article e250006. https://doi.org/10.20900/jpbs.20250006

FoundMyFitness. (n.d.). Creatine. https://www.foundmyfitness.com/topics/creatine

Gordji-Nejad, A., Matusch, A., Kleedörfer, S., Patel, H. J., Drzezga, A., Elmenhorst, D., & Bauer, A. (2024). Single dose creatine improves cognitive performance and induces changes in cerebral high energy phosphates during sleep deprivation. Scientific Reports, 14, Article 4937. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-54249-9

Xu, C., Bi, S., Zhang, W., & Luo, L. (2024). The effects of creatine supplementation on cognitive function in adults: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Frontiers in Nutrition, 11, Article 1424972. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnut.2024.1424972

Neurotransmitters: Understanding the Neurochemistry Behind Addiction and Sobriety

Posted on by Stephen Brumwell

I think since the day I started my nutrition degree, I had always been fascinated by the brain, but I never really knew why.

This all changed when I was introduced to the world of antidepressants, something that came into regular use as I tried to cope with alcohol addiction.

See, I never knew much about antidepressants at that point, and the extent of my knowledge of neurotransmitters was pretty basic.

Fast forward to late 2017, I came across a fantastic little book called Brain in Balance: Understanding the Genetics and Neurochemistry Behind Addiction and Sobriety. That book was a gold mine for simplifying the science of neurochemistry and how it relates to addiction. It got me deep in the weeds of how substance abuse can impact our neurochemical state.

Neurotransmitters can sound like a very technical subject, but they are really just chemical messengers that help your brain and nervous system communicate. They influence mood, motivation, sleep, appetite, stress response, focus, pain, cravings, pleasure, memory and the way you respond to everyday life.

That is why they matter so much in addiction recovery, alcohol recovery, substance abuse and sobriety.

When someone has been drinking heavily, using substances, sleeping poorly, under-eating, living under long-term stress or running on inconsistent routines, brain chemistry can feel out of balance. This does not mean every low mood, craving or poor sleep pattern can be neatly blamed on one neurotransmitter. The brain is far more complex than that.

But it does mean neurotransmitters are worth understanding.

Alcohol and other substances can affect several major neurotransmitter systems, including dopamine, GABA, glutamate, serotonin, opioid peptides, noradrenaline, acetylcholine and the endocannabinoid system. These systems help explain why early recovery can involve low motivation, anxiety-like symptoms, irritability, poor sleep, emotional sensitivity, cravings and that flat feeling where normal life does not feel rewarding yet (NIAAA, 2024; Yang et al., 2022).

The goal of this article is not to diagnose neurotransmitter deficiencies. It is to give you a clearer, practical understanding of how these systems work, why recovery can feel the way it does, and what kinds of foundations can support healthy brain chemistry over time.

What To Know (Article Snapshot)

  • Neurotransmitters are chemical messengers used by the brain and nervous system.
  • Serotonin has multiple receptor types throughout the body, often referred to as 5-HT receptors, and I like to describe these receptors as switches on a switchboard.
  • Alcohol and substance abuse affect multiple neurotransmitter systems, not just dopamine.
  • Dopamine is involved in reward, motivation, learning and habit formation.
  • GABA and glutamate help regulate the balance between calm and excitement in the nervous system.
  • Serotonin is involved in mood, appetite, sleep, pain sensitivity and emotional regulation.
  • Opioid peptides and endorphins are involved in pleasure, pain relief and reward reinforcement.
  • Noradrenaline is tied to alertness, stress response, arousal, focus and fight-or-flight physiology.
  • The endocannabinoid system helps regulate appetite, mood, pain, stress and neurotransmitter release.
  • Acetylcholine supports attention, memory, learning, REM sleep and parasympathetic nervous system activity.
  • In recovery, neurotransmitter systems can improve over time, but timelines vary. Some brain and cognitive changes may improve over months of abstinence, especially with consistent support (NIAAA, 2024; Powell et al., 2024).
  • Symptoms alone are not enough to diagnose a neurotransmitter problem. Diet, sleep, stress, alcohol history, medications, mental health, pathology and professional assessment all matter.

What Are Neurotransmitters?

Neurotransmitters are chemical signals used by our nervous system to transmit messages between neurons, or nerve cells.

We have billions of these neurons. The body could almost be considered a big battery, using neurons to send electrochemical signals across the brain and body.

These neurotransmitters are often grouped into different systems that you may have heard of before, including serotonin, dopamine, GABA and glutamate.

Some neurotransmitters are more excitatory. They help switch the system on, increase alertness, support learning and drive action. Others are more inhibitory. They help slow the system down, support calm, regulate sleep and stop the brain from running too hot.

Most of them are not simply good or bad. Dopamine is not just pleasure. Serotonin is not just happiness. GABA is not just calm. Glutamate is not just stress. Each one has multiple roles depending on the receptor, brain region, timing, context and the rest of the body.

In alcohol recovery, the useful way to think about neurotransmitters is this: repeated alcohol exposure can train the brain toward reward, relief and habit loops. When alcohol is removed, the brain has to recalibrate. That recalibration can affect mood, motivation, sleep, cravings, stress tolerance and emotional regulation.

Serotonin

Serotonin is one of the most well-known neurotransmitters, usually discussed in relation to mood.

But serotonin does much more than mood. It is involved in appetite, pain perception, sleep, arousal, gut function, sensory processing, impulse control and emotional regulation. Genetic variability in serotonin-related systems has also been studied in relation to behaviour and psychiatric disorders (Nordquist & Oreland, 2010).

Serotonin acts through many receptor types, often referred to as 5-HT receptors. I like to think of these receptors like switches on a switchboard. Some switches may increase activity in one pathway, while others may reduce activity somewhere else. That is one reason serotonin is not as simple as “more serotonin equals better mood.”

Alcohol can interact with serotonin systems and the wider reward circuitry of the brain. Serotonin also interacts with dopamine and GABA, which means it can influence reward, inhibition, mood and alcohol-related behaviour in complex ways (Lovinger, 1997; Marcinkiewcz, 2015).

Serotonin primary functions

  • Mood regulation
  • Appetite and satiety
  • Sleep and arousal rhythm
  • Pain sensitivity
  • Gut motility
  • Impulse control
  • Sensory processing
  • Emotional flexibility

Serotonin deficiency

Possible serotonin-related patterns may include low mood that feels worse during winter, anxiety or social anxiety patterns, aggression, OCD-type tendencies, carbohydrate cravings, constipation, low pain tolerance, poor dream recall, insomnia, impulsive tendencies or low self-esteem.

These patterns do not prove low serotonin. Similar symptoms can come from poor sleep, low protein intake, low iron, thyroid issues, trauma, medication changes, chronic stress, blood sugar instability or mental health conditions.

Serotonin excess

Possible serotonin excess can be more serious and may involve confusion, agitation, sweating, diarrhoea, nausea, muscle twitching or tremor. This is especially important if medications or supplements that affect serotonin are involved. Seek medical advice if symptoms are sudden, severe or medication-related.

If you have low serotonin production

A sensible serotonin-supportive foundation starts with the basics: regular meals, enough protein, daylight exposure, movement, sleep consistency and stress support.

Vitamin D status may also be worth considering, especially if mood feels worse in winter or sunlight exposure is low.

Tryptophan, an amino acid found in protein-containing foods, is a precursor for serotonin. But the answer is not to chase one amino acid in isolation. It is usually more useful to build consistent meals that contain quality protein, colourful plants, fibre and enough overall energy.

Dopamine

Dopamine is often described as the pleasure chemical, but that is only part of the story.

Dopamine is deeply involved in motivation, reward learning, drive, anticipation, habit formation, movement, attention and goal-directed behaviour.

In addiction and alcohol use disorder, dopamine is important because it helps the brain learn that alcohol and alcohol-related cues are rewarding. People, places, times of day, stress states, music, social settings or even certain emotions can become linked with drinking.

The National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism describes dopamine as critical for learning to associate alcohol and related cues with rewarding effects. Over time, repeated drinking can strengthen these reward and habit pathways, making cravings feel automatic rather than purely conscious (NIAAA, 2024; Volkow et al., 2010).

This is one reason early recovery can feel flat. If the brain has been trained to expect a large dopamine-related reward from alcohol, normal rewards like exercise, food, work, hobbies, sunlight, music and connection may take time to feel satisfying again.

Dopamine primary functions

  • Motivation and drive
  • Reward learning
  • Pleasure and anticipation
  • Habit formation
  • Focus and goal-directed behaviour
  • Movement control
  • Reinforcement of cues and routines

Dopamine deficiency

Possible dopamine-related patterns may include addictive tendencies, tremors or restless legs, low libido, lacking motivation, depression, mental exhaustion, dull or boring dreams, forgetfulness, low reward, cravings or impulsive behaviour.

Again, this is not a diagnosis. It is a pattern to understand, especially in early sobriety when normal rewards may feel muted.

Dopamine excess

Possible dopamine excess or overactivation may be associated with agitation, aggression, impulsivity, risk-taking, insomnia or, in more complex clinical states, psychosis-like symptoms. Schizophrenia is sometimes discussed in relation to dopamine pathways, but it is a clinical diagnosis and not something to self-diagnose from a blog post.

If you have low dopamine production

Dopamine recovery is not about forcing constant stimulation. In fact, chasing stronger stimulation can keep the reward system stuck in the same loop.

Better foundations include consistent sleep, morning light, exercise, enough protein, meaningful goals, structured routines, small wins, reduced alcohol exposure, social connection and time away from high-intensity reward triggers.

Tyrosine is an amino acid involved in catecholamine production, including dopamine and noradrenaline. It may be worth considering in some cases, but supplements should be treated carefully, especially with medications, anxiety, blood pressure issues or mental health conditions. Food and routine come first.

GABA

GABA, or gamma-aminobutyric acid, is the calming force that resides in the body, and one of the main inhibitory neurotransmitters in the brain. GABA modulation is one pathway discussed in anxiety and nervous-system regulation research (Gauthier & Nuss, 2015).

In practical terms, GABA helps slow neuronal activity. It creates calm, relaxation, supports the part of the nervous system that allows us to rest and digest, and helps balance the more agitating neurotransmitters such as glutamate and noradrenaline.

Alcohol has a strong relationship with GABA. One of alcohol’s short-term effects is that it can enhance inhibitory GABA activity while also reducing excitatory glutamate activity. This is part of why alcohol can initially feel relaxing, sedating or anxiety-reducing.

The problem is what happens with repeated exposure. The brain adapts. Over time, the nervous system may compensate for alcohol’s sedating effect. When alcohol is removed, that adapted system can feel overexcited, anxious, shaky, irritable or unable to sleep. In some people, alcohol withdrawal can become dangerous and requires medical supervision (NIAAA, 2024; Dharavath et al., 2023).

GABA primary functions

  • Main inhibitory neurotransmitters
  • Calm and relaxation
  • Sleep support
  • Sleep maintenance
  • Stress regulation
  • Balancing excitatory neurotransmission
  • Reducing excessive neuronal firing

GABA deficiency

Possible GABA-related patterns may include feeling wired, moving fast, talking rapidly, feeling overstimulated, anxiety-like symptoms, panic attacks, alcohol cravings, insomnia or dwelling over stressful situations.

But symptoms like anxiety and insomnia can have many causes. They should not be treated as proof that someone needs a GABA supplement.

GABA excess

True GABA excess is not usually something people identify from symptoms alone. Too much sedative activity from alcohol, medications or other substances may cause drowsiness, poor coordination, slowed thinking or excessive sedation, which needs appropriate medical context.

If you have low GABA production

Foundational support includes alcohol reduction or abstinence where appropriate, consistent sleep timing, magnesium-rich foods, adequate protein, breathwork, gentle evening routines, less late caffeine, light exposure management, movement and nervous-system regulation practices.

Magnesium is still one of the first nutrients I think about here because it supports normal nerve and muscle function and is involved in nervous-system regulation. That does not make magnesium a direct cure for anxiety or withdrawal, but it can be part of the bigger picture. If alcohol withdrawal symptoms are significant, medical support matters.

Glutamate

Glutamate is almost the opposite of GABA. It is one of the main excitatory neurotransmitters in the body.

It is essential for attention, learning, memory, focus, cognition, sensory processing and normal brain function. You do not want no glutamate. You want glutamate activity to be properly regulated, because chronic glutamate toxicity and excitotoxicity have been discussed in neurodegenerative and neuronal-injury research (Lewerenz & Maher, 2015; Prentice et al., 2015).

GABA and glutamate work together like a balancing system. GABA helps slow things down. Glutamate helps activate and stimulate. The nervous system needs both.

Alcohol can suppress glutamate activity in the short term. With repeated heavy alcohol use, the brain may compensate in the opposite direction. During withdrawal, this can contribute to excessive excitatory activity, which helps explain symptoms such as agitation, poor sleep, anxiety-like feelings, tremor and, in severe withdrawal, seizure risk (NIAAA, 2024; Becker & Mulholland, 2014).

This is one of the reasons alcohol withdrawal should not be taken lightly. If someone has been drinking heavily or daily, stopping suddenly can be medically risky.

Glutamate primary functions

  • Main excitatory neurotransmitters
  • Learning and memory
  • Focus and attention
  • Motor function
  • Sensory processing
  • Executive function
  • Neuroplasticity

Glutamate deficiency

Low or disrupted glutamate signalling can affect cognition, learning, focus and memory, but glutamate deficiency is not something to casually self-diagnose.

Glutamate excess

Possible glutamate excess or excitatory overactivity may feel like agitation, irritability, overwhelming anxiety, shakiness, poor memory, poor focus, poor concentration, racing thoughts, poor sleep or sound and light sensitivity. In alcohol withdrawal, excessive excitatory activity can become medically serious.

If you have high glutamate production

The biggest support is reducing the stressors that keep the nervous system overactivated. This can include alcohol support, sleep repair, consistent meals, blood sugar stability, magnesium-rich foods, calming routines, medical care where needed and gradual rebuilding of exercise tolerance.

If withdrawal symptoms are strong, professional help is not optional. It is the safer path.

Opioid and Endorphin System

The opioid system is a less commonly discussed one, but it is known for its ability to produce chemicals in the body called endorphins.

These are the body’s natural opioid-like chemicals, which are part of why you can feel good after a long run, a big exercise session, laughter, music, connection or meaningful achievement.

Opioid receptors are found across the nervous system and gastrointestinal tract and are involved in pain, reward, mood and gut function (Feng et al., 2012).

Alcohol can activate reward pathways involving opioid peptides and dopamine. This is one reason alcohol can feel reinforcing, especially when it is tied to relief, reward, social connection or emotional escape (NIAAA, 2024).

This system also helps explain why naltrexone, an opioid receptor antagonist, is used in alcohol use disorder treatment. It can reduce the pleasurable effects of alcohol by interfering with opioid-related reward activity. That does not mean everyone needs medication, but it does show how strongly reward chemistry is involved in alcohol behaviour.

Opioid and endorphin primary functions

  • Pain modulation
  • Pleasure and reward
  • Emotional comfort
  • Reward reinforcement
  • Social bonding
  • Exercise-related feel-good effects
  • Interaction with dopamine pathways

Opioid deficiency

Possible opioid or endorphin-system patterns may include low pain tolerance, addictive tendencies, carbohydrate cravings, anxiety-like feelings and tension, low mood, dwelling over major life situations, low pleasure or a strong desire for relief.

Again, these patterns are not diagnostic. They simply help explain why recovery can involve a period where life feels emotionally dull before natural rewards start to feel stronger again.

Opioid excess

Opioid-system excess is not usually a useful self-assessment category. In the context of opioid drugs or medications, excess opioid activity can be dangerous and may involve sedation, slowed breathing, confusion or loss of consciousness. That requires urgent medical support.

If you have low opioid or endorphin production

Helpful foundations include exercise at a tolerable level, sunlight, laughter, music, social connection, meaningful work, time in nature, physical affection where appropriate, cold or heat exposure if tolerated, and building routines that create natural reward without alcohol.

Noradrenaline

Noradrenaline, also called norepinephrine, are catecholamine-like neurotransmitters responsible for the body’s fight-or-flight stress response system.

It helps the body mobilise energy, increase heart rate, sharpen attention and respond to perceived threat. In the right amount, noradrenaline helps you wake up, focus and act. In excess or poor regulation, it can feel like stress, panic, tension or hypervigilance. Noradrenaline has also been discussed in stimulant addiction research and stress-related neurobiology (Sofuoglu & Sewell, 2009; Zhang et al., 2013).

In addiction science, noradrenaline is often discussed in relation to stress systems, withdrawal, negative emotional states and relapse risk. Newer reviews continue to explore noradrenergic mechanisms in alcohol use disorder, especially around stress, emotional pain and hyperkatifeia, which is a heightened negative emotional state linked with withdrawal and relapse vulnerability (NIAAA, 2024; Haass-Koffler et al., 2018; Varodayan et al., 2025).

Noradrenaline primary functions

  • Fight-or-flight response
  • Alertness and arousal
  • Focus and attention
  • Heart rate and blood pressure response
  • Stress adaptation
  • Memory formation around emotional events
  • Interaction with dopamine and serotonin systems

Noradrenaline deficiency

Possible noradrenaline-related deficiency patterns may include chronic stress, fatigue and pain, low mood, low blood pressure tendencies, blood sugar dips, exhaustion, short attention span, low pain tolerance or poor concentration.

Context matters, because the same person may swing between low arousal and overactivation depending on sleep, alcohol, caffeine, trauma, blood sugar and stress load.

Noradrenaline excess

Possible noradrenaline excess may feel like states of panic, panic attacks, racing heart, irritability, hypervigilance, poor stress tolerance, sleep disruption, tension or difficulty calming down after conflict.

If you have low noradrenaline production

Support starts with predictable routines, blood sugar stability, sleep repair, reducing alcohol and stimulant load, gentle movement, breathwork, therapy or coaching where appropriate, and building emotional regulation skills.

Because noradrenaline is made downstream from dopamine, the dopamine foundations above also matter. For some people, trauma, chronic stress or anxiety disorders are part of this picture and deserve proper support.

Endocannabinoid System

Our next neurotransmitter system is the endocannabinoid system, and to no surprise, it is closely tied with appetite, mood, pain, stress, inflammation, memory, reward and neurotransmitter release.

This is the system that gets activated in marijuana users, and it can often result in increased hunger, also known as the munchies.

The endocannabinoid system is commonly discussed through two receptor types, CB1 and CB2. CB1 receptors are found in high concentrations in the brain, especially in areas involved in emotion, memory, mood and sensory perception. CB2 receptors are often discussed in relation to immune signalling and inflammation, though the system is more complex than a simple brain-versus-immune split.

One interesting feature of the endocannabinoid system is that it can help regulate neurotransmitter release. In simple terms, it helps the nervous system modulate other signals rather than just pushing one direction all the time (Zou & Kumar, 2018). The endocannabinoid system has also been reviewed in relation to depression, reward and pain control (Huang et al., 2016).

Alcohol research has also explored endocannabinoid signalling in brain regions involved in stress and reward, including the amygdala and related circuits (Bedse et al., 2019).

Endocannabinoid primary functions

  • Regulation of feeding behaviour
  • Appetite
  • Energy metabolism
  • Learning and memory
  • Pain and inflammation
  • Mood and emotional regulation
  • Reward and motivation
  • Regulation of neurotransmitter release

Endocannabinoid deficiency

Possible endocannabinoid-related deficiency patterns may include low pain tolerance, excessive inflammation, treatment-resistant patterns, changes in appetite, poor stress tolerance, mood changes, poor sleep or feeling less able to experience natural reward.

This does not mean cannabis is automatically the answer. Cannabis can affect the same system, but it can also create problems for some people, especially when used heavily or relied on for sleep, appetite, stress or emotional regulation.

Endocannabinoid excess

Possible endocannabinoid overactivation may be associated with excessive food intake, increased obesity risk, lower motivation, altered memory, sedation or greater reliance on cannabis or other external inputs for regulation.

If you have low endocannabinoid production

A good place to start here is a foundation that supports the body’s own endocannabinoid system: exercise, omega-3-rich foods, good sleep, stress regulation, social connection, time outdoors and reducing reliance on substances that override natural regulation.

Acetylcholine

Our last neurotransmitter is acetylcholine, which is vital for memory formation, memory recall and keeping our attention span sharp.

It is also relevant to nicotine and alcohol. Nicotine acts on nicotinic acetylcholine receptors, which are connected with dopamine reward pathways. Research has also explored how nicotinic acetylcholine receptors contribute to smoking, alcohol reward and dependence (Brunzell et al., 2015; Rahman et al., 2015; Tarren et al., 2016).

This helps explain why alcohol and smoking often become paired behaviours. The combination can amplify reward learning and make cues stronger.

Acetylcholine primary functions

  • Memory formation
  • Learning
  • Attention span
  • REM sleep
  • Parasympathetic nervous system function
  • Digestive secretions and motility
  • Muscle activation
  • Interaction with reward pathways

Acetylcholine deficiency

Possible acetylcholine-related patterns may include sympathetic dominance, short-term memory problems, age-related cognitive decline, impaired digestive function, being a light sleeper, poor sleep onset, tension in muscles, poor attention or strong nicotine-related cue patterns.

But again, those symptoms can have many causes. Sleep deprivation alone can affect memory, focus and emotional regulation.

Acetylcholine excess

Acetylcholine excess is not something to casually self-diagnose. In the wrong context, too much cholinergic activity can be associated with nausea, sweating, salivation, digestive upset, muscle twitching or other symptoms that need medical interpretation.

If you have low acetylcholine production

Choline-containing foods can support acetylcholine production. These include eggs, fish, chicken, beef, dairy, soy foods and some legumes.

Acetyl-l-carnitine is sometimes discussed in this space too, but I would still look at the bigger picture first: sleep, protein intake, nutrient density, alcohol reduction, nicotine support where needed, stress regulation and consistent routines.

What Supports Healthy Neurotransmitter Production?

It is tempting to jump straight to supplements, but neurotransmitters are not built in isolation. While the list of supporting neurotransmitters can be endless, below is a rather non-selective but good starting point. Most of these are foundational to our health and habits – I write more about Foundational Health Habits here, and how they support sobriety, recovery and resilience.

  • Enough protein intake – Sufficient protein intake is essential for healthy neurotransmitter production
  • B vitamins, Magnesium, zinc, iron and other minerals
  • Omega-3 fats help our nerves and neurons fire effectively
  • Good Sleep quality, Morning light and a balanced circadian rhythm – More on sleep hygiene here.
  • Exercise and movement
  • Stress regulation
  • Gut health
  • Reduced alcohol exposure and sustained abstinence.
  • And more.

If you are in alcohol recovery, this is the important part: feeling flat, anxious, unmotivated or emotionally sensitive does not mean you are broken. It may reflect a nervous system that is recalibrating after a long period of artificial reward, sedation, stimulation or stress relief.

The Takeaway

Hopefully, this gives you a fairly succinct and overall understanding of the many neurotransmitters found in the body, and why they matter so much in substance abuse, addiction recovery and sobriety.

Alcohol and substance use can affect multiple neurotransmitter systems at once. Dopamine, serotonin, GABA, glutamate, opioid peptides, noradrenaline, acetylcholine and the endocannabinoid system all play different roles in reward, relief, withdrawal, cravings, mood and nervous-system balance.

This is why early recovery can feel so physical and emotional. It is not simply a mindset issue. The brain and body are adapting.

The good news is that the brain is plastic. It can change. Research suggests that at least some alcohol-related brain and cognitive changes can improve with abstinence and the right support, although timelines vary from person to person (NIAAA, 2024; Powell et al., 2024).

The practical path is to build foundations: food, protein, sleep, morning light, movement, stress regulation, connection, medical support where needed and consistency.

If you are unsure what is driving your symptoms, Stephen can help you look at your diet, alcohol history, sleep, stress load, pathology, habits and supplement use in context.

FAQ

What neurotransmitters are involved in alcohol recovery?

Several neurotransmitter systems are involved in alcohol recovery, including dopamine, GABA, glutamate, serotonin, opioid peptides, noradrenaline, acetylcholine and the endocannabinoid system. These systems influence reward, motivation, stress, sleep, cravings, mood and nervous-system regulation.

Can low dopamine affect motivation after quitting alcohol?

Dopamine is involved in motivation, reward learning and habit formation. After repeated alcohol use, normal everyday rewards may feel less satisfying for a while. This can contribute to low motivation or feeling flat in early recovery. It does not mean dopamine is the only factor, but it is part of the picture.

Why do I feel anxious or wired after stopping alcohol?

Alcohol can affect the balance between GABA, which is inhibitory, and glutamate, which is excitatory. After repeated heavy drinking, stopping suddenly can leave the nervous system overexcited. This may contribute to anxiety-like symptoms, poor sleep, irritability or shakiness. Heavy or daily drinkers should seek medical advice before stopping suddenly because withdrawal can be dangerous.

How long does brain chemistry take to rebalance after alcohol?

There is no single timeline. Some people notice improvements within weeks, while other changes can take months or longer. Research suggests some cognitive and brain changes related to alcohol use disorder can improve with abstinence, but recovery depends on the person, drinking history, health status, sleep, nutrition, treatment and support.

What foods support neurotransmitter production?

Protein-rich foods provide amino acids used to make neurotransmitters. Examples include eggs, fish, meat, poultry, Greek yoghurt, legumes, tofu, tempeh, nuts and seeds. Nutrient-dense whole foods also provide B vitamins, magnesium, zinc, iron, omega-3 fats and other cofactors that support normal nervous-system function.

Are neurotransmitter symptoms enough to diagnose a deficiency?

No. Symptoms are not enough to diagnose a neurotransmitter deficiency. Low mood, anxiety, cravings, poor sleep, fatigue and brain fog can have many causes. Diet, blood sugar, sleep, stress, trauma, medications, alcohol history, mental health and pathology all need to be considered.

Can supplements fix neurotransmitters?

Supplements can sometimes help when there is a clear nutritional need, but they are not a shortcut for recovery and should not replace medical care. Some supplements can interact with medications or be unsuitable for certain conditions. Food, sleep, alcohol support, movement, mental health care and proper assessment come first.

Is alcohol withdrawal dangerous?

It can be. People who drink heavily or daily should not assume they can stop suddenly without risk. Alcohol withdrawal can involve serious symptoms, including seizures in some cases. Medical support is important if there is any concern.

References

Brunzell, D. H., Stafford, A. M., & Dixon, C. I. (2015). Nicotinic receptor contributions to smoking: Insights from human studies and animal models. Current Addiction Reports, 2(1), 33-46. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40429-015-0042-2

Feng, Y., He, X., Yang, Y., Chao, D., Lazarus, L. H., & Xia, Y. (2012). Current research on opioid receptor function. Current Drug Targets, 13(2), 230-246. https://doi.org/10.2174/138945012799201612

Gauthier, I., & Nuss, P. (2015). Anxiety disorders and GABA neurotransmission: A disturbance of modulation. Neuropsychiatric Disease and Treatment, 11, 165-175. https://doi.org/10.2147/NDT.S58841

Huang, W., Chen, W., & Zhang, X. (2016). Endocannabinoid system: Role in depression, reward and pain control. Molecular Medicine Reports, 14(4), 2899-2903. https://doi.org/10.3892/mmr.2016.5585

Lewerenz, J., & Maher, P. (2015). Chronic glutamate toxicity in neurodegenerative diseases: What is the evidence? Frontiers in Neuroscience, 9, 469. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2015.00469

Nordquist, N., & Oreland, L. (2010). Serotonin, genetic variability, behaviour, and psychiatric disorders: A review. Upsala Journal of Medical Sciences, 115(1), 2-10. https://doi.org/10.3109/03009730903573246

Prentice, H., Modi, J. P., & Wu, J. Y. (2015). Mechanisms of neuronal protection against excitotoxicity, endoplasmic reticulum stress, and mitochondrial dysfunction in stroke and neurodegenerative diseases. Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity, 2015, 964518. https://doi.org/10.1155/2015/964518

Sofuoglu, M., & Sewell, R. A. (2009). Norepinephrine and stimulant addiction. Addiction Biology, 14(2), 119-129. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1369-1600.2008.00138.x

Tarren, J. R., Shariff, M., Holgate, J., & Bartlett, S. E. (2016). Effects of alcohol on nicotinic acetylcholine receptors and impact on addiction. In Neuropathology of Drug Addictions and Substance Misuse (pp. 411-419). https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-800213-1.00038-9

Volkow, N. D., Wang, G. J., Fowler, J. S., Tomasi, D., Telang, F., & Baler, R. (2010). Addiction: Decreased reward sensitivity and increased expectation sensitivity conspire to overwhelm the brain’s control circuit. BioEssays, 32(9), 748-755. https://doi.org/10.1002/bies.201000042

Zhang, G., Gao, Z., Guan, S., Zhu, Y., & Wang, J. (2013). Upregulation of excitatory neurons and downregulation of inhibitory neurons in barrel cortex are associated with loss of whisker inputs. Molecular Brain, 6, 2. https://doi.org/10.1186/1756-6606-6-2

Dharavath, R. N., Pina-Leblanc, C., Tang, V. M., Sloan, M. E., Nikolova, Y. S., Pangarov, P., Ruocco, A. C., Shield, K., Voineskos, D., Blumberger, D. M., Boileau, I., Bozinoff, N., Gerretsen, P., Vieira, E., Melamed, O. C., Sibille, E., Quilty, L. C., & Prevot, T. D. (2023). GABAergic signaling in alcohol use disorder and withdrawal: Pathological involvement and therapeutic potential. Frontiers in Neural Circuits, 17, 1218737. https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/neural-circuits/articles/10.3389/fncir.2023.1218737/full

Varodayan, F. P., Erikson, C. M., Scroger, M. V., & Roberto, M. (2025). Noradrenergic mechanisms and circuitry of hyperkatifeia in alcohol use disorder. Biological Psychiatry, 97(6), 580-589. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11839382/

Yang, W., Singla, R., Maheshwari, O., Fontaine, C. J., & Gil-Mohapel, J. (2022). Alcohol use disorder: Neurobiology and therapeutics. Biomedicines, 10(5), 1192. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9139063/

Haass-Koffler, C. L., et al. (2018). Noradrenergic targets for the treatment of alcohol use disorder. Psychopharmacology. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29460163/

Lovinger, D. M. (1997). Serotonin’s role in alcohol’s effects on the brain. Alcohol Health and Research World. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6826824/

Marcinkiewcz, C. A. (2015). Serotonergic neuroplasticity in alcohol addiction. ACS Chemical Neuroscience. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5928559/

National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism. (2024). Neuroscience: The brain in addiction and recovery. https://www.niaaa.nih.gov/health-professionals-communities/core-resource-on-alcohol/neuroscience-brain-addiction-and-recovery

Powell, A., Sumnall, H., Smith, J., Kuiper, R., & Montgomery, C. (2024). Recovery of neuropsychological function following abstinence from alcohol in adults diagnosed with an alcohol use disorder: Systematic review of longitudinal studies. PLOS ONE. https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0296043

Rahman, S., Engleman, E. A., & Bell, R. L. (2015). Nicotinic receptor modulation to treat alcohol and drug dependence. Frontiers in Neuroscience, 8, 426. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4754113/

Becker, H. C., & Mulholland, P. J. (2014). Neurochemical mechanisms of alcohol withdrawal. Handbook of Clinical Neurology, 125, 133-156. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6943828/

Bedse, G., Centanni, S. W., Winder, D. G., & Patel, S. (2019). Endocannabinoid signaling in the central amygdala and bed nucleus of the stria terminalis: Implications for the pathophysiology and treatment of alcohol use disorder. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 43(10), 2014-2027. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6779484/

Zou, S., & Kumar, U. (2018). Cannabinoid receptors and the endocannabinoid system: Signaling and function in the central nervous system. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 19(3), 833. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms19030833

© Copyright 2026. Stephen Brumwell. (ABN) 74 901 057 015. Wellness Creative is a Brisbane-based graphic design studio specialising in branding, web and packaging design for health and wellness brands, clinics and practitioners across Australia. All work produced is subject to these Terms & Conditions
Theme: Overlay by Kaira.